English literature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

English writing - Essay Example ell, they have not wavered on a solitary event to dismiss any single chance to achieve it, even at the expense of exacting inconceivable impact of damage to their kindred people. Such edgy endeavor of intensity mongering started hundreds of years prior yet as the development has advanced it has taken an increasingly severe and stripped structure. Aristotle maybe envisioned the progressing procedure of unspeakable atrocity; in this way, he commented prophetically, â€Å"The truth is that the best violations are brought about by overabundance and not by need. Men don't become dictators all together that they may not endure cold; and henceforth incredible is the respect gave, not on him who murders a cheat, yet on him who slaughters a tyrant.† (Aristotle, Part VII) Then again it very amazing to see that regardless of how much the dictators and force mongers endeavor to incur the torment over mankind however they have not had the option to crush the soul and embodiment of humankind totally. People, even in today’s universe of good defilement just as shared doubt are prepared to extend their hands for helping other people. Through writing, music and distinctive different types of expressions they challenge such silly procedure of unspeakable atrocity by their human partners. Through investigation of specific stories and a film Born on the Fourth of July, we will attempt to comprehend whether shared battle of people has truly had the option to hold human instinct and qualities. Simultaneously we will likewise observe to which extent unspeakable atrocity has stretched out its degree to abuse the obligation of human partnership. 1. Conceived on the Fourth of July/This film was discharged in the year 1989 and has been made by getting motivation from the life account with a similar name, from a veteran of Vietnam War, Ron Kovic. Despite the fact that Ron was conceived and raised in a family, having a solid energetic foundation yet in the wake of watching the truth of the Vietnam War however his own eyes, Ron was totally baffled about the demonstration of fighting.

Age Related Changes That Occur in the Cardiovascular System Free Essays

Age Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System Age Related Changes that Occur in the Cardiovascular System In the ordinary conduction of the heart the electrical drive begins in the SA hub, additionally called the pacemaker of the heart. The electrical motivation goes through the correct chamber and through the Bachmann’s pack into the left chamber. This animates the atria to contract. We will compose a custom paper test on Age Related Changes That Occur in the Cardiovascular System or on the other hand any comparative point just for you Request Now Next the sign travel to the AV hub. The AV hub marginally postpones the sign. This postponement is required for the heart to thump appropriately. The Cardiovascular System iframe class=wp-installed content sandbox=allow-contents security=restricted style=position: outright; cut: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px); src=https://phdessay.com/the-cardiovascular-framework natural conduction-framework/implant/#?secret=ut1rhQbsSH information secret=ut1rhQbsSH width=500 height=282 title=#8220;The Cardiovascular System#8221; #8212; Free Essays - PhDessay.com frameborder=0 marginwidth=0 marginheight=0 scrolling=no/iframe Immediately the atria and ventricles would beat simultaneously. The electrical sign at that point goes to the Bundle of His where it is part into the signs setting off to one side and left ventricle. The sign goes through the left and the correct Bundle Branch to get the ventricles. As the body ages there are changes in the cardiovascular framework. A portion of these progressions remember significant changes for pulse, veins become all the more solid and thicker, heart valves become thicker and all the more hardened, the SA hub loses cells and developes stringy tissue. One significant change is the decline in the versatility of the aorta and extraordinary supply routes. The typical aorta takes into account ordinary extension during systole. Left ventricular launch makes a weight wave which ventures to every part of the length of the aorta to the outskirts. The beat produced at a fringe vessel is the aftereffect of this weight wave and isn't an impression of blood stream. The speed of the weight wave is named the beat wave speed. Age-related aortic solidifying causes an expansion in the beat wave speed. The wave speed in the older outcomes in a rise in the systolic pulse. The beat wave is quicker bringing about the reflected wave arriving at the climbing aorta in the late systole as opposed to early diastole. Coronary supply route ailment likewise called CAD is the main source of death in the two people. Computer aided design is the main kind of coronary illness in the United States. Computer aided design is the solidifying and develop of plaque inside the corridors that flexibly the heart with blood. The fundamental piece of plaque is cholesterol trailed by different minerals. This kind of develop is called atherosclerosis. As this develops it blocks the courses which thusly diminishes the measure of oxygen arriving at the heart. This can lear to chest torment and coronary episodes. The danger of CAD increments with age. 37% of individuals in the age scope of 65-74 years of age and 48% of those beyond 75 1 years old (1) revealed having this sort of disease. In the 75 years and over, more than 33% of men and roughly one fourth of ladies are at present living with coronary corridor infection. Hypertension is increasingly regular in the 60 and over range. Hypertension is characterize as a circulatory strain of 140/90 or more noteworthy. Hypertension is identified with the loss of versatility in the aorta. Pulse basically systolic weight ascends with age. In a network based examination 90% of midlife grown-ups with ordinary circulatory strain created hypertension in late life. (Ref 2) Arrhythmia is an unusual heart beat. It’s increasingly basic in the maturing grown-up. Arrhythmias happen when the electrical signals on the heart are not working effectively and making the heart beat in unpredictable musicality. A wide range of things can prompt arrhythmias. Cardiovascular arrhythmias can be brought about by a respiratory failure, scarring from earlier coronary episode, blocked conduits (CAD), hypertension, changes to your heart’s structure, for example, from cardiomyopathy. Most basic arrhythmias in the old are tachycardia and bradycardia. Tachycardia is a pulse more noteworthy than 100 beats for each moment and bradycardia is under 60 beats for each moment. Tachycardia is most normally brought about by age-related crumbling of the heart or a basic ailment. It is an interruption of the ordinary electrical sign. Bradycardia is brought about by changes to the heart identified with maturing. It is additionally an interruption of the typical electrical sign. Congestive cardiovascular breakdown (CHF) is a condition brought about by the debilitating of the heart and the cardiovascular framework. It creates when the heart can't siphon enough blood. A few reasons for CHF would incorporate, limited veins that flexibly blood to the heart muscle †coronary supply route sickness, past cardiovascular failure, or myocardial dead tissue, with scar tissue that meddles with the heart muscle’s typical work, hypertension, heart valve ailment, essential infection of the heart muscle itself, called cardiomyopathy. Hypertension is the main source of CHF in the older. High blood bressure put levels of popularity on the heart to siphon blood. This delayed interest debilitates the heart muscle after some time. The heart doesn’t siphon as effectively as it should, the blood eases back down and less blood is siphoned. The blood coming back to the heart backs up in the veins driving liquid from the veins into tissues of the feet and legs. The growing that outcomes is call â€Å"edema†. List of sources Medline Plus, Aging changes in the heart and veins, Retrieved April 1, 2013 From http://www. nlm. nih. gov/medlineplus/ency/article/004006. htm Jenkins, Kemnitz, Tortora (2010) Anatomy and Physiology From Science to Life Danvers, MA: John Wiley and Sons Inc Pat Joiner-Myers, Mosby’s Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Health Professions eighth Edition Medscape, Cardiovascular Physiology-Changes With Aging , Retrieved April 1, 2013 From http://www. medscape. com/viewarticle/450564_2 References 1. Office for National Statistics: General Lifestyle Survey (2007) www. measurements. gov. uk/statbase/item. asp? vlnk=5756 2. Vasan RS, Beiser A, Seshadri S et al. Remaining lifetime hazard for creating hypertension in moderately aged ladies and men. JAMA 287, 1003â€1010 (2002). Step by step instructions to refer to Age Related Changes That Occur in the Cardiovascular System, Papers

Continetal drift theory Essays -- essays research papers fc

Mainland Drift, the hypothesis that landmasses move gradually about the world's surface, changing their positions comparative with each other and to the shafts of the earth. In the past the hypothesis has been examined however not by and large acknowledged, most geologists accepting the mainlands to be fixed set up and subject just to vertical developments, for example, those saw during mountain inspire. As of late, in any case, a sound group of proof on the side of an altered type of the float hypothesis has been found. Thoughts are getting exact and brought together, with accentuation on a moving, developing sea depths. The new hypothesis is called plate tectonics. Not long after the Atlantic Ocean had been mapped, around 300 years prior, it was seen that the contrary coasts had comparable shapes, however it was not until the center of the nineteenth century that precise maps were distributed exhibiting that the two coasts could be fitted together intently. A few geologists at that point recommended that the attack of the coasts was not a mishap - that the landmasses were once joined and had in this manner floated separated. None of the proposals were paid attention to. Â Â Â Â Â In 1912, notwithstanding, the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener researched the attack of the Atlantic drifts more cautiously than had his forerunners and gathered all the mainlands into one extraordinary land mass, which he called Pangaea. He guessed that the mass started to break separated around 200 million years prior. He likewise demonstrated that some geographical highlights on the contrary drifts could have fitted together, and that there were many striking similitudes between the fossil plants and reptiles on the contrary drifts, especially the shores of Africa and South America. In the event that the landmasses were pushed together, the topographical, fossil, and different lines of proof would consolidate precisely in the manner that lines of print on a torn paper would join when the paper was reassembled. Wegener additionally brought up that old climatic zones appeared to have lain in better places from the current zones. He called attention to that where in credible ice sheets have liquefied in ongoing geographical occasions in Scandinavia and North America, the land is ascending as quick as a centimeter a year. This vertical inspire, he stated, requires flat inflow of issue beneath and infers that stream and movement do happen inside the earth. Â Â Â Â Â We... ...a segregated mainland. Â Â Â Â Â Although Wegener and Du Toit recommended that the crude mainlands started to separate around 200 million years back, there is a lot of proof that float started some time before at that point, and that mainland squares have gradually been moving about the world's surface all through a lot of land time. It appears that before the mainlands floated separated and opened up the Atlantic, they had floated together and quit for the day sooner sea. Somewhere else where landmasses appear to have chanced upon one another and accumulated mountains between them is the Himalayas, which may have been delivered when the Indian Peninsula segregated itself from Gondwanaland and continuously floated into Asia List of sources  Daley, Robert B. 1986 An investigation of an evolving planet; CEBCO Publishing co. p.418  Bartolini, Annachiara and Larson, Roger L; 2001 Pacific microplate and the Pangea supercontinent in the Early to Middle Jurassic; Geology, Aug2001, Vol. 29 Issue 8, p735-39  Anderson, Don L 2001. Top-Down Tectonics; Science, 9/14/2001, Vol. 293 Issue 5537, p2016-18  http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geography/classes/Geo101/101week6_s01.html

Investment Banking Failures in the UK

Speculation Banking Failures in the UK Presentation The United Kingdom, and especially London, helps as one of the main remote communities for Investment banking and other related makes a difference. Around one-half European speculation activity happens by means of London just as, with New York, London contains the overall head to the arranging of venture banking makes a difference. All together for questions gave by outside budgetary organizations London; The United Kingdom rich and extended lawful just as bankruptcy governments are two of the most huge essentials supporting the achievement of the United Kingdom monetary division just as its character as a remote community for venture banking. Especially, the truth that the United Kingdom bankruptcy government doesn't separate with in home just as the remote loan bosses perseveres an area of Substantial serious advantage. The legislature is locked in to saving these Merits, just as developing upon Londons accomplishment as an overall speculation supports banking focus. In acting so i ts striking that the legislature, together with the money related Services Authority (FSA) just as the business itself, is fit to concede reasonable procedure, and answer quickly just as effectively to whatever worries which may come out as for the United Kingdom government. The cutting edge choppiness in budgetary organizations advance contains spotlight refutes for the providers of Investment finances banking helps just as their clients, and government just as governors, the worldwide over. A predetermined assortment of questions contains rose in the circumstance of the indebtedness of to such an extent that business firms, Admitting with the reference to the manner by which administrators just as extra bankruptcy authorities handle With unequivocal areas in the market and the convey of client assets in a single case the ineffective business firm has Participated indebtedness. Market members bear an inquiry to the ability of indebtedness governments, by and large Nations, to answe r to the particular questions presented by the washout of significant compound money related associations, explicitly overall venture finances banking concerns. It is basic that the specialists answers effectively to these questions, by taking a gander at whether The United Kingdom indebtedness government could involve extra fortify, by establishing reasonable qualities To consider with venture subsidizes banking washout, just as handling with our worldwide teammates to guarantee Cooperation while considering with the failure of huge cross-fringe business firms. Venture banks A venture bank is a monetary association that improves capital, exchanges just as arrangements mortal. In different terms venture banking is named as corporate account Venture banks process for, and advantage from, organizations just as specialists, by lifting income by means of distributing and exchanging security frameworks capital markets (some reasonableness and obligation) just as guaranteeing securities (for example. Exchanging credit default switches), and permitting exhortation on procedures determined combinations just as acquirements. An outright greater part of speculation finances banking concerns give deliberately consolatory serves to combinations, achievements, divestiture or extra money related administrations for clients, determined the circulating of subsidiaries, inflexible income, abroad exchange, exchange products, just as value safety efforts. In states of regulative capability, to do these aides in the United States government and advisor must include the approved representative seller, just as an issue to Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) (FINRA) law [1]. Until 1999, the U.S.A. Saved an interim with a speculation subsidiz es banking just as business banking concerns. Other industrialized countries, conceding G7 countries, have not protected this interim verifiably. Circulating security frameworks for money or safety efforts (i.e., help methods, advertise making), or the progression of insurances (i.e., guaranteeing, investigate, etc.) was referenced to as the exchange side. The word venture bank can characterize organizations getting a too wide scope of activities, conceding the arranging of guidance, the broking of procedures, advantage enterprise and head conveying activity. For every single one of these activities is striking to the working of fluid discount advertises just as goes on both inside the wide business banking worries just as inside the more altered foundations to which the word, speculation finances bank is ordinarily utilized. As a rule, banking concerns either dedicated in exchange (or retail) banking or venture banking. In exchange banking, the establishment gets together stores from clients just as manages straight loans to business associations and a few bodies. Through the speculation banking, a premise creates funds in two separate strategies. It may take out on basic assets by means of the capital market by exchanging stock its industry, just as it may likewise search for out plan capital or individual value in trade for the stake in its industry. A venture banking business firm should contract alluding work. Speculation financiers may, for example, bear the cost of partnerships counsel on combinations and achievements. They cross the market so as to manage the cost of guidance on as to comprise regular offers and how better to control the enterprises normal belongings. Sure of the warning activities speculation banking business firms submit in meeting with those of a nonpublic financier, similar to they will every now and again manage the cost of procurement and-offer guidance to the enterprises that they were available. The beginning with venture banking and extra sorts of banking has go harder to shut in late weeks, as deregulating empowered financial establishments to come in extra parts. Goldman Sachs saw that however there have dissimilarities in free budgetary foundations business firms endeavor models, the business undertakings of practically whole expansive, including money related organizations mediators which were covered. Their inside activities concede traditional money related organizations intervention, sharing, advertise comprising, consolatory aides and furthermore guaranteeing safety efforts. Many popularized banking concerns submit in the venture supports banking endeavor. An eminent separation with in speculation banking worries just as nearly of the business banking concerns is that venture banking concerns endeavor would be made overwhelmingly in the huge amounts/institutional markets, while the huge worldwide and business banking concerns would too bear a gigantic retail business undertakings and client base Examination Disappointment in the United Kingdoms monetary helps industry in the City that ‘Alpha is the shorthand which is utilized for cutting edge advantage just as ‘tracking Alpha is the thing that Great Britains brokers, financial specialists and furthermore the physical boss chairmen acted in the last two many years of the twentieth century just as the activity yrs of this thousand years, peaking with in 2003 just as 2007 out of a blow out of impact and indiscreet improvement ventures. In any case, to nearly members just as reporters the yrs 1997-2007 seemed to show that following alpha worked out. By the yr 2007 the United Kingdom had happen to act a significant character in the overall monetary organizations bolsters the business. New Yorks city male guardians were enough alluded by the Citys rapidly rising business sector commitment that they approved the counseling organization McKinsey to situate the issue. The insights comprised in certainty stunning. Londons commitment of the worldwide over-the-counter differentials advertise viola ted 40%, all over 20% of the presences fence stock investments assets contained took care of in London just as Europe, for the most part the City, determined for 63% of overall starting open contributions in 2006. By this period, Europe, at once and hesitation for the huge American venture banking concerns, included right around one-a large portion of their total wages. The Citys achiever assisted with deciphering Great Britains alarming creation up monetary framework into a propelled information drove financial framework. Money related foundations helps commitment of open objective created from 4% in 2001 to 7% in 2007, the industriousness brought a business overabundance of about  £forty billion, offered more than one million occupations just as depicted for about 13% of the outright income improvement accumulated by their Majestys pay customs. Such an extensive amount this succeeded had been cultivated during Gordon Browns best period as Chancellor of the Exchequer with in 1997 and 2007 too he thought about the City as a model for the equalization of the country, at one time recognizing a meeting of brokers: ‘What you have achieved for the money related foundation helps division we, as a country, at a current intend to achieve for the whole of the British financial frameworks. It had been a quick turn. Londons business customs returned to the fifteenth century yet for a few yrs the City included a closed store, clubby and approaching shows up just as not especially dedicated. Entrepreneurialism involved firmest in the eponymous dealer banking concerns built up by European outcast classes with the end goal that like the Rothschilds just as the Warburgs simply their improvement contained was stayed by banking standards just as mandates which restricted their commitment in capital markets. With the finish of the World War II and 1979, as the preservationist parties and the work rotated to deal with impact, the City signed on, suspected by the first, left to its own components by the last referenced and too not saw as fundamental to nationalistic accomplishment by either ideological group. Matters modified for Great Britain and Margaret Thatchers Conservatives succeeded impact by the City in 1979 when. Enthusiastic liberal market political economy s

When Disaster Strikes

When Disaster Strikes With Hurricane Wilma bearing down on Florida, and Hurricanes Katrina and Rita and the earthquake in Pakistan still very much on all of our minds, and the early action deadline about a week away, I figure this is a good time to talk about application process flexibility. We know bad things happen, like when your school is shut down by a hurricane, your home is destroyed by an earthquake, a close relative passes away, or other unforeseen tragedies. Obviously, any of these things can make it hard to apply to college. We at MIT Admissions are willing to be very flexible with your application if something awful happens to you. Each circumstance is very different, so its hard to give examples, but do know that we are willing to work with you. If you need to work out a flexible solution for your situation, please call the office at (617) 253-4791, Monday-Friday, 9am-5pm Boston time, or send us an email at [emailprotected] Relatedly, there are several upcoming benefits at MIT. First, from an email I received Date: Sun, 23 Oct 2005 02:31:09 -0400 From: [an MIT student] To: [MIT students] Subject: Candle-light Vigil for the Earthquake Victims in South Asia this Tuesday @ 7:30pm Candle-light Vigil for the Earthquake Victims in South Asia Come show your support for the Earthquake Victims in South Asia on Tuesday, 25th October at 7:30pm by lighting a candle in front of the student center steps. Over 80,000 people have died and more than 3 million are homeless in Pakistan, the country worst hit by the earthquake. As communications with remote villages are re-established, the death and injury toll is likely to rise. Tens of thousands of people have lost their homes as entire villages in the Kashmir region and northern Pakistan have been wiped out. Pakistan faces an enormous challenge in terms of not only providing food and shelter to those who have lost their homes and families, but also for the future rehabilitation of earthquake survivors, especially the thousands of children orphaned by the disaster. Please take out a few minutes of your time and help remember the earthquake victims, hear personal stories of people affected by the disaster and help contribute funds to save more lives. Suggested donation: $2 per candle Time: 7:30pm (stay for as long or as short as you want) Location: Student Center Steps Needed: YOU! **Coupons for candles are available for sale in lobby 10** Also, the annual Fall Festival event has become a celebration of/benefit for New Orleans, coordinated by New Orleans resident and MIT junior Louis Fouche: Fall Festival Presents Bayou Bash; A Big Celebration of the Big Easy! October 28-30th, 2005 Fall Festival 2005 will host internationally known jazz greats from New Orleans including the citys Mardi Gras ambassadors, Big Chief Bo Dollis The Wild Magnolias, Marva Wright (the Blues Queen of New Orleans), the Piano and Zydeco princes, Davell Crawford and Rockin Dopsie, Jr., traditional Jazz legend Bob French, and the second line street beat of the Lil Stooges Brass Band, among many others. Performers and guests will converge on campus in late October for a series of charity performances to benefit both the victims of Hurricane Katrina and now struggling musicians from the vibrant New Orleans Jazz community. All events are open to the Entire MIT community and guests (the Sunday evening concert is open to MIT community and non-MIT members). Bayou Bash Events: Friday, October 28th: Jazz Concert, 12:30pm 1:30pm in Stata Amphitheater. Join the Stooges Brass Band and the Wild Magnolias Mardi Gras Indians led by Big Chief Bo Dollis, Jr., directly from New Orleans, for an authentic New Orleans second line procession (Parade) in and around Stata Student Street. Follow the parade to a New Orleans Jam session for the MIT campus from 12:30 to 1:30pm in the Stata Amphitheater. (Inclement Weather location will be the Gates Lobby). Bring your instruments: including tambourines, cowbells, percussion. And second line handkerchiefs and umbrellas. Free drinks and food will be provided. SaveTFP Spooky Skate: The Great Masquerade, 10pm 1am in the Johnson Ice Rink. This annual event, sponsored and run by SaveTFP, will certainly be a great success again this year. SaveTFP has decided to incorporate the Mardi Gras theme into their event. New Orleans themed costumes are encouraged and there will be prizes for the best costume. Activities and food in the Zcenter Lobby will accompany the free skate. Saturday October 29th BBQ and Jazz Music, 1pm at the Kresge BBQ Pits. Join The Christian Scott Sextet and MITs own Louis Fouche as they play Jazz music during the Bayou Bash BBQ. This event is open to the entire MIT community and will be a great way to celebrate New Orleans style music, hang out with friends and enjoy some great food. 23rd Annual Sigma Kappa Late Night, 8pm in Kresge Auditorium. Sigma Kappa Late Night is the annual variety show fundraiser for Alzheimers Disease. Every year, students enter acts to show off their talents to over 500 members of the MIT community and compete to win great prizes donated by local Boston and Cambridge businesses. Last year, we raised over $3,500 to benefit Alzheimers Disease research. Sunday, October 30th Jazz Brunch, 12pm in the Sidney-Pacific Multi-purpose Room. Join graduate students and friends for a wonderful brunch in the Sidney-Pacific Multi-purpose Room. A live Jazz quartet will entertain guests as they enjoy good food and good company. This event is open to the entire MIT community. HallowMIT, 3:30pm on Kresge Oval and Student Center Lobby. Where: Student Center Lobby (W20), followed by trick or treat at Simmons Hall Who: Entire MIT Community students, staff, families, kids. What: Clowns, jugglers, face paints, balloons, parades, candy, games and tons of fun for everyone! Bayou Bash Concert featuring The Wild Magnolias, 7pm (doors at 6:30pm) at Kresge Auditorium. Bayou Bashs main event!! This concert will be a huge gathering of New Orleans musicians including Big Chief Bo Dollis The Wild Magnolias, the famous Mardi Gras Indians, who will perform with other Jazz standouts including: Marva Wright, Davell Crawford, Rockin Dopsie, Jr, Bob French and the Lil Stooges Brass Band. More About the Fall Festival Charities Bayou Bash has two main charity goals: The first is to provide a fantastic venue for New Orleans musicians to practice their livelihood; live and on stage here at MIT. This is an important goal as many of the performers have lost their homes and performance venues. Our second goal is to donate proceeds from the Sunday evening concert to Pass Christian, Mississippis high school music program and to the New Orleans Childrens Hospital. Even if you cant make it to these events, you can of course still donate to the cause via the Red Cross or any of the many, many other groups involved in the relief efforts.

A Play as a Mirror Bertolt Brechts The Life of Galileo - Literature Essay Samples

Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) lived in a period when Europe went through the most massive economic, political, and social changes. He witnessed the two World Wars, the revolutions in Austria, Germany, Hungary in 1917-1918, the uprising of Communism in Russia, Fascism in Italy, Nazism in Germany, and the Cold War between the United States and Russia (Geary 2). During the 1930s, the Nazi Party became more and more popular in Germany. In 1934, Adolf Hitler seized control in Germany and became the Fuhrer and Chancellor of the Reich (Gray 90). Brecht, a believer in Marxism and a socialist writer, became an obvious target of the Nazi German Government. When Adolf Hitler came into power in 1933, Brecht was exiled from Germany and his books were under a ban. During his exile from 1938 to 1945, he wrote five masterpieces that established his fame abroad: Mother Courage and Her Children (1939/1941), The Life of Galileo (1938/1943), The Good Woman of Setzuan (1940/1943), Mr. Puntila and his Servan t Matti (1941), and The Caucasian Chalk Circle (1944-1945). These plays are slightly different from his earlier propagandist and anti-Nazi works, in which his Marxist views are outspoken. They display human beings behaviors and ask the audience to question themselves as to what they would do in a similar situation (Gray 109). In Life of Galileo, Brecht used real historical figures and set the play in the past to distance his audience. Although the play deals with issues that happened in the seventeenth century in Italy, the play is about Brechts contemporary time. Brecht historicized Galileos life to make his audience reflect upon what they are seeing on stage and to make objective judgments on the characters behaviors. He also used the play to mask his political view in order to avoid direct trouble in this politically and socially restless period. The Life of Galileo is a story of Galileos struggle with the Catholic Church, which had all the political power in the seventeenth ce ntury Italy. Brecht wrote the play chronologically, beginning with a forty-six year old Galileo. He is a professor in the University of Padua, he is not wealthy, and he lives with his daughter Virginia, his housekeeper Mrs. Sarti, and Mrs. Sartis son Andrea. Galileo is trying to prove the theories of Copernicus, a study about the earth revolving around the sun. His findings, however, clash with the Churchs doctrine of the Earth being the universes centre. The Church claims that his teaching offends the Churchs proclaimed cosmic order and upsets its political power in society. The Pope agrees to have him investigated by the Inquisition. Although Galileo is eager to learn the truth and to show it to the world, he recants in 1633 when shown instruments of torture. His students despise his cowardice and abandon him. Until the end of his life, Galileo is guarded by the Inquisition and forbidden to write and publish. However, he secretly continues his research, finishes The Discorsi, and gives the book to his former student, Andrea, to smuggle it abroad. There are three versions of The Life of Galileo: the Danish version, the American version, and the Berlin version. The Danish version was written in 1938 in Denmark and was performed in Zurich in 1943. The plot of the play is more or less the same, but it concentrates on the struggle between Galileo and the authorities (Wilson 146). The character of Galileo is different from the American and the Berlin versions in that he is a hero who cunningly recants and accepts the authority of the church so he can finish the Discorsi. Brecht, however, changed his attitude toward Galileo during the Second World War. In 1944, he wrote the American version in collaboration with Charles Laughton, an English actor in Hollywood. This version is shorter than the Danish version, and Brecht changed some incidental characters and altered Galileo after the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. Galileo, at first a hero who outwits the Inqu isition, becomes a coward who betrays his people because he is frightened of physical pain. However, Brecht was not satisfied with the American version. Laughton, who did not share Brechts exile and flight experience, eliminated many passages about truth being oppressed in Germany. Brecht said:The more incisive changes in the structure of entire scenes or even of the work itself were made solely to facilitate the forward movement of the action . . . L. (Laughton) treated the printed text with a revealing, sometimes brutal indifference that the playwright was seldom able to share. What we created was a script; the performance was everything. It was impossible to persuade him to translate portions that the dramatist was prepared to omit in the production, but that he, however, wanted to rescue for the book. The most important thing was the stage performance, for which the text was only the means, the vehicle: the text was used up in the production it was consumed like powder in firewo rks. (Stern 137) Because of his dissatisfaction with the American version, Brecht revised the play with the help of Elisabeth Hauptmann, Benno Beson, and Ruth Berlau in 1953 in Berlin. This version was first performed by the Berliner Ensemble in 1957. The Berlin version, which Hill refers it as an enriched and refined second version (113), restored many materials from the Danish version that Laughton had cut, but Galileos character remains the same as the American version. Although The Life of Galileo is a historical play, it does not merely to show Galileos life as a scientist. Claude Hill in his book Bertolt Brecht explains, A dramatist rarely if ever merely aims at total accuracy when he chooses historical material; he must be judged by other criteria (114). Although the play is set in Italy in the seventeenth century, it is a play about the playwrights time, not merely about Galileos. The emergence of totalitarianism in Europe in the early twentieth century, particularly in Ge rmany, Italy, and Russia, brought a series of political and social changes to the world. Governments were imposing values and restrictions on people in order to keep them under their control. Individuality and freedom were taken away by these governments to achieve a higher goal and political ideology. The Nazi government managed to indoctrinate its people to believe that its political and social policies would bring the country to what Brecht called the New Age (Foreword 213) and Germany would no longer suffer from the economic depression and loss of cultural pride caused by the First World War. People blindly believed and listened to what the government told them to do without questioning the governments real intention. In the foreword to The Life of Galileo, Brecht said, And yet these disappointed men may still go on existing in a new age, an age of great upheaval. Only, they know nothing of new ages (Foreward 214). It is clear that Brecht used the play to mirror what was going o n in the contemporary world. Galileo is considered a revolutionary scientist who laid the foundation for the development of scientific research (Britannica). He discovered and proved that Earth did not stay still, but rather revolved around the sun. Even though he had the potential to show the dawn of a new age (Portrayal 217) to the world, he recanted to the Church and let the people blindly follow the Churchs teaching. People who lived under Hitlers Germany in the 1930s were in a very similar situation. The public believed whatever the government told them without questioning whether it was true. Brecht says:In these days the conception of the new is itself falsified. The Old and the Very Old, now re-entering the arena, proclaim themselves as new, or else it is held to be new when the Old or the Very Old are put over in a new way. . . . The new for example is the system of waging wars, whereas old, so they say is a system of economy, proposed but never put into practice, which mak es wars superfluous. In the new system, society is being entrenched in classes; and the old, so they say, is the desire to abolish classes. The hopes of mankind do not so much become discouraged in these times; rather, they become diverted. (Foreward 214-215) Through his presentation of the character of Galileo and his story of recantation, Brecht wanted his audience to question totalitarian government. In the play, the Church is afraid that Galileos radical discovery will upset its power and change the worlds order. It prefers a more stable world that sustains its authority even though its people would have to live under an illusion. Although he desires to change the world, Galileo betrays his people by admitting that the Church is right simply because he wants to live. His recantation delays the process of scientific development for years. Brecht, a committed Marxist writer, believed that questioning, a refusal to accept anything as fixed (Needle and Thomson 79) is necessary to i mprove human social conditions. By presenting Galileos weakness, he made his audiences realize that something else could have been done to alter what happened in the seventeenth century. By the same token, they could also take action to make a difference in their own society. Apart from showing the image of people being forced to believe those in positions of authority, Brecht also argued that the governments attempt to suppress knowledge and truth would be futile (Wilson 147). In the first Danish version of The Life of Galileo, Galileo realizes that death or resistance to authority would not make the Church accept his discovery. He recants and the Inquisition believes he will stop his research. However, he continues and secretly finishes the Discorsi. Because of his recantation, he has the chance to smuggle the book abroad, spreading the truth that Earth revolves around the sun. In the end, knowledge and truth win out over the Churchs ideological impositions. Brecht experienced a similar situation to Galileos when Hitler came into power in 1933, and Brecht was driven into exile, all his works banned in Germany (Socialist Review). However, Brecht believed that Hitlers censorship would eventually become pointless, which is why he kept on writing. Brecht wanted to fight against lies and ignorance and educate his audience of societys ills. He believed truth would eventually defeat totalitarianism. The latter version of The Life of Galileo is still about the playwrights own time. If the Danish version represents the playwrights society in the 1930s, then the American version represents his society in the 1940s. In 1941, Brecht departed for the United States and he arrived in Los Angeles, where he settled in Santa Monica near Hollywood. With the help of Charles Laughton, he wrote the American English version of The Life of Galileo in 1944-47 (the American version is simply called Galileo). Laughton played the role of Galileo in the 1947 Los Angeles premier and in the production in New York later on. The American version is much shorter than the original Danish version. Brecht also changed the character of Galileo by changing his reason for finishing the Discorsi to more as the result of habit than a deliberate act of defiance (Hill 116). The reason Brecht changed the motive of Galileos recantation was the atomic bombings in the 1940s. In his Unvarnished Picture of a New Age: Preamble to the American Version, Brecht wrote:The atomic age made its debut at Hiroshima in the middle of our work. Overnight the biography of the founder of the new system of physics read differently. The infernal effect of the great bomb placed the conflict between Galileo and the authorities of his day in a new, sharper light. (224)It is clear that Brecht wanted to use The Life of Galileo to mirror his time. In latter versions, Brecht raises the question of the role of science and scientists in relation to humanity. When Galileo presents the telescope as his new d iscovery to the Venetian court, his student Ludovico, who had told him about this new instrument in Amsterdam, says, I am beginning to understand science (Brecht and Laughton 58). Ludovico despises Galileos claiming the instrument as his own creation. Brecht thought some scientists would allow the bourgeois to put their research products into any use because this could earn them a decent living. Even though Galileo uses the telescope to let the world see what the earth looks like, the Venetian government uses it in its sea battles with other countries and states. A scientific invention that aims to bring good to humanity becomes a weapon that destroys lives. The atomic bombs made Brecht realize that the nuclear age was also a product of Galileos findings because he brought the world to a new scientific age in the seventeenth century. He then cast Galileo as a traitor to humanity because he was the root of the atomic bomb. In Brechts view, the scientists were not aware of the morali ty behind their research. In a draft for a foreword to the play he condemns those scientists who do not realize their moral values as scientists. Brecht writes: The bourgeois single out science from the scientists consciousness, setting it up as an island of independence to be able in practice to interweave it with politics, economics, and ideology. The research scientists object is pure research; the product of that research is not so pure. The formula E= mc2 is conceived of as eternal, not tied to anything. Hence other people can do the tying: Suddenly the city of Hiroshima became very short-lived. The scientists are claiming the irresponsibility of machines. (Drafts 220)Brecht believes scientists have gradually become a tool of the people who can afford to pay for inventions and research. In the last scene, Galileo says to Andrea, I surrendered my knowledge to the powers that be, to use it, no, not use it, abuse it, as it suits their ends. I have betrayed my profession (Brecht an d Laughton 124). Scientists, who were supposed to invent for a better life and bring truth to human beings, were inventing dreadful weapons that destroyed lives and were pushing the world to an end because of their selfish needs. Although it is clear there are similarities between the playwrights time and Galileos time, why did Brecht choose to write a historical play instead of a fictional play? Why did Brecht invent (or reinvent) the character of a historical figure? Eric Bentley, a well-known Brecht scholar, explains:Brecht became interested in the historical Galileo at a time when he was preoccupied with friends and comrades who remained in Germany and somehow managed to continue to work. Prominent in his thoughts was the underground political worker plotting to subvert the Hitler regime. (14-15) In the first version of the play Galileo says, take care when you travel through Germany with the truth under your coat!(Bentley 15). Brecht understood that the only way to express the truth in Germany during 1930s was to hide it. He wrote Writing the Truth: Five difficulties before he finished the first version of The Life of Galileo. The five difficulties of writing truth, according to Brecht, are the courage to write it, the keenness to recognize it, the skill to manipulate it as a weapon, the judgment to select those in whose hands it will be effective, and the need of cunning to spread it among the many. Brecht thought that these five difficulties were formidable problems for writers living under Fascism (Writing 133).In the essay, he especially elaborates on the fifth difficulty, the need of cunning in writing the truth. He lived in a time of oppression where people could not freely tell the truth, in public or private, because they would be in great danger. Even Brecht had to escape his home country because his works expressed a political view opposing Hitlers government. He said in the essay, Lenin wished to deceive exploitation and oppression on Sakhalin Island, but it was necessary for him to beware of the Czarist police (Writing 143). Many governments in Europe during that time, especially in Germany, censored all materials that went against their political and social policies. It became extremely hard for writers who wanted to tell the truth to the people. Brecht, however, thought that if a writer applied cunning devices, then many things that cannot be said in Germany about Germany can be said about Austria (Writing 143). Brecht suggested that a writer could provoke his audience to think about the government objectively by writing a play about other places or areas that share similarities to the contemporary societys situation. Brechts The Life of Galileo, in this case, displays a critical situation that happened in the seventeenth century, with which his audience would be able to make an analogy to their own society. It is only by writing cunningly that a writer can spread the truth at a time when oppression exists. Brecht tho ught The Life of Galileo to be technically a great step backwards (Kellner 287) because he failed to distance his audience emotionally from feeling pity toward Galileo. However, he used historification, another famous epic technique, to allow his audience to think about Galileos situation and actions with appropriate socialistic values. Historification is a playwriting device of setting the action of a play in the historic past to draw parallels with contemporary event (Theatre Dictionary). Brecht often set his plays in the past or in a foreign country, such as The Good Woman of Setzuan takes place in China and Mother Courage and Her Children takes place in Germanys Thirty Years War. He used this technique to get his audience to draw parallels between the past and the present in order to reflect on the social and political issues. In The Life of Galileo, Brecht set the play in the Catholic Church-dominated Italy of the seventeenth century and told the Galileos recantation story in o rder to express his opinions toward the oppressive contemporary world. He believed that by historicizing his play, the audience would then be able to detach themselves from their familiar environment and hence could adopt a critical attitude toward their society (Kellner 285). By seeing what happened in the past on stage, the audience would be able to suggest what should have been done in the past to solve the problems (Benjamin 8). By making parallels to the contemporary world, they would then be able to see what is going wrong in their societies and what could be done to solve the problems. Although it was not until the early 1950s that Brecht wanted to change his epic theatre to a dialectic theatre (Schumacher 113), The Life of Galileo, which was written ten to twenty years before he theorized his dialectic theatre, showed the nature of theatre that Brecht favored at the end of his life. He demonstrated his political view in The Life of Galileo; and questioned his audiences poli tical standpoints in relation to their society. The play, however, manages to educate its audience in an enjoyable way. Ernst Schumacher wrote in his essay The Dialectics of Galileo that Galileo . . . is a demonstration, not only in its technique but in its aesthetic essence. It is the merely narrative and purely demonstrative structure, as well as the appropriately calm production of this play that allows us to grasp and enjoy dialectics in the theatre (123). Brecht skillfully used the theatre as a place to ask people to reflect and feel for what they were experiencing in the society. The Life of Galileo shows how an artist could take a social and political action in a time when oppression existed in the society by inspiring his audience to think and to judge their society critically. This is why The Life of Galileo is still considered as one of the greatest plays in the theatre history even though it was written over sixty years ago. Works Cited Benjamin, Walter. Understanding Br echt. London: New Left, 1972. Bentley, Eric. Introduction: The Science Fiction of Bertolt Brecht. Galileo. Bertolt Brecht and Charles Laughton. Ed. Eric Bentley. Grove Press: New York, 1966. 9-42. Brecht, Bertolt, Charles Laughton. Galileo. Ed. Eric Bentley. New York: Grove Press, 1966. Brecht, Bertolt. Writing the Truth: Five difficulties. Trans. Richard Wilson. Galileo. Bertolt Brecht and Charles Laughton. Ed. Eric Bentley. Grove Press: New York, 1966. 133-150. Brecht, Bertolt. Drafts for a Foreword to Life of Galileo. Collected plays/Bertolt Brecht. Ed. Ralph Manheim and John Willet. Pantheon Books: New York, 1971. 219-223. Brecht, Bertolt. Foreword. Collected plays/Bertolt Brecht. Ed. Ralph Manheim and John Willett. Pantheon Books: New York, 1971. 213-215. Brecht, Bertolt. Portrayal of the Church. Collected plays/Bertolt Brecht. Ed. Ralph Manheim and John Willet. Pantheon Books: New York, 1971. 216-217. Brecht, Bertolt. Unvarnished Picture of a New Age: Preamble to the A merican Version. Collected plays/Bertolt Brecht. Ed. Ralph Manheim and John Willet. Pantheon Books: New York, 1971. 224.- Dick, Geary. Brechts Germany. Brecht in Perspective. Ed. Graham Bartram and Anthony Waine. Longman: New York, 1982. 2-10. Galileo. EncyclopÃÆ'Â ¦dia Britannica. 2006. EncyclopÃÆ'Â ¦dia Britannica Online. 10 Nov 2006 .- Gray, Ronald. Brecht The Dramatist. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976.Hill, Claude. Bertolt Brecht. Boston: G.K. Hall Co., 1975. Kellner, Douglas. Brechts Marxist Aesthetic. A Bertolt Brecht Reference Companion. Ed. Siegfried Mews. Greenwood Press: Westport, 1997. 281-295. Needle, Jan, Peter Thomson. Brecht. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Schumacher, Ernest. The Dialectics of Galileo. Trans. Joachim Neugroschel. Brecht Sourcebook. Ed. Carol Martin and Henry Bial. Routledge: New York. 2000. 113-123. Stern, Guy. Brechts Galileo Galilei. Exile: The Writers Experience. Ed. Ohn M. Spalek and Robert F. Bell. The University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill. 1982. 133-140. Subiotto, Arrigo. Epic Theatre: A Theatre For the Scientific Age. Brecht in Perspective. Ed. Graham Bartram and Anthony Waine. Longman: New York, 1982. 30-44. Still in the Dark Ages: Mother Courage and Her Children. Dec 1995. Socialist Review. 13 Nov 2006 Theatre Glossary. 2004. FilmPlus Organization. 15 Nov 2006 Wilson, Michael. Revisiting Brecht: preparing Galileo for production. Studies in Theatre Performance 22(2002): 145.

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